Medieval Christmas at Lincoln

In medieval England, Christmas was not just a single day but a massive Twelve Day festival that balanced solemn religious devotion with wild, "world-turned-upside-down" revelry. After the four-week fast of Advent, people from all social classes stopped working from December 25th until Epiphany on January 6th.

The Twelve Days of "Misrule"

Medieval celebrations were famous for role reversals, where the social hierarchy was temporarily flipped.

The Lord of Misrule: A commoner or servant was often appointed to "rule" over the festivities, leading the drinking and games.

Boy Bishops (known in Latin as the Episcopus Puerorum): In Lincoln Cathedral and many others, a choirboy would be elected "bishop" wearing full vestments and performing all church duties except the Mass.  

The Boy Bishop was typically elected on St. Nicholas Day (December 6) and "reigned" until Holy Innocents' Day (28 December). During this time he wore a miniature set of episcopal robes, including a mitre and a ring, provided by the cathedral.  He and his "canons" (the other choir boys) performed almost all the services, except for the Mass itself.  He led processions through the city of Lincoln, where he would bless the people and collect money for the cathedral’s poor or for the choristers' own fund.  At Lincoln, as at other major cathedrals like Salisbury, the Boy Bishop would symbolically take the real Bishop’s seat during the Magnificat when the choir sang the line: "He hath put down the mighty from their seat and hath exalted the humble and meek."

Boy Bishop and his Canons

The tradition was abolished in Lincoln and across England by Henry VIII in 1541, as he viewed the "childish observations" as mocking the dignity of the church. While it was briefly revived under the Catholic Queen Mary I (1553–1558), it was permanently suppressed by Elizabeth I.  Unlike Salisbury or Hereford, which have revived versions of the ceremony today, Lincoln Cathedral does not currently maintain a formal Boy Bishop tradition, though it remains a key part of its medieval history.

The Records at Lincoln

Detailed records from the 14th and 16th centuries confirm the tradition:

The Statutes (1308-1309): Cathedral documents from this era specify the exact requirements for the ceremony. For example, they record that on the Feast of St. John, the Boy Bishop was to be given a high-quality wax candle weighing half a pound, while the other choristers were given smaller candles.

Records from the final years before the Reformation show that the Boy Bishop at Lincoln was still actively celebrating Vespers on the vigil of Holy Innocents' Day (December 28).

Beyond the Boy Bishop, Lincoln Cathedral was a major site for the broader Feast of Fools (Festum Fatuorum), a more raucous and adult version of the "misrule" tradition. While the Boy Bishop was for children, the Feast of Fools was the time for the subdeacons—the lower-ranking adult clergy—to let loose.

A Tale of Two Feasts

The food you ate depended heavily on your status, but everyone indulged after the long Advent fast.

For the nobility the centerpiece was often a Boar’s Head, decorated with rosemary and bay. They also served exotic "show" dishes like roasted swan or peacock, sometimes sewn back into its own feathers to look alive.

Most peasant families ate goose or specialised "Christmas pies." A popular dish was frumenty (a thick wheat porridge boiled with milk, eggs, and spices).

Unlike today’s sweet version, medieval mince or "shrid" pies were filled with shredded meat (mutton or beef), suet, dried fruits, and spices like cinnamon and nutmeg to represent the gifts of the Magi.

Traditions and Greenery

While they didn't have Christmas trees (a Victorian import), medieval homes and churches were heavily decorated with holly, ivy, and bay.

A massive Yule log was brought in on Christmas Eve and kept burning for the full twelve days. It was considered bad luck if the fire went out.

Wassailing,  is an ancient British winter tradition, rooted in Anglo-Saxon "Waes Hael" (be healthy), that blesses orchards for a good harvest and celebrates good health through singing, drinking spiced cider, and making loud noises to scare away evil spirits from the trees, typically around Twelfth Night.

Caroling: Originally, carols were communal circle dances accompanied by singing, performed both in the streets and in the churchyards.

Gift Giving

Surprisingly, Christmas Day was not the main day for presents. In medieval England, New Year’s Day was the traditional time for exchanging gifts.

Lords were expected to give "Christmas boxes" to their tenants and servants (the origin of Boxing Day), which often contained money, leftover food, or clothing.

Peasants, in turn, were often required to give their lord a "gift" of a couple of hens or a specific amount of grain as part of their rent.

In fact, Lincoln provides some of the most specific historical evidence for the practice in England. The tradition was a central part of the cathedral's "Twelve Days of Christmas" celebrations and was even codified in the cathedral's official statutes.

Here are the specific "foolish" traditions that took place in and around medieval Lincoln:

The Feast of the Circumcision (January 1st)

This was the primary day for the Feast of Fools. 

Just as the choristers took over on Holy Innocents' Day, the subdeacons took the seats of the Dean and Canons  on New Year's Day, electing a mock bishop/pope, parodying services, and indulging in revelry, allowing a yearly release of "foolishness" to preserve order.

Some records suggest the performance of the Orientis Partibus (The Song of the Donkey), where a live donkey was sometimes led into the cathedral to honor the Flight into Egypt. The congregation would respond to the priest’s prayers by braying ("Hee-haw!") instead of saying "Amen."

The "King of the Bean"

In the wealthy households around the Cathedral Close and the city, the Twelfth Night (January 5th) feast was the grand finale.

 During the feast, a bean was hidden in a cake or loaf of bread.  Whoever found it in their slice became the "King of the Bean." If a woman found it, she became the Queen (or appointed a King). For the rest of the night, the real head of the house had to wait on the "King" and do whatever they commanded, no matter how ridiculous.

The Clash with Bishop Robert Grosseteste

Lincoln is famous in church history for the fierce opposition of its 13th-century bishop, Robert Grosseteste. He was one of the first major reformers to try to ban the Feast of Fools.  In a famous letter to the Dean and Chapter of Lincoln, he called the festival a "house of joking, scurrility, and trifling" and a profanation of the sacred space.  Despite his efforts, the tradition was so beloved by the local clergy and townspeople that it survived in various forms for another 200 years.

Satirical Carvings: Humour in Stone

If you visit Lincoln Cathedral today, you can still see physical evidence of this medieval "foolishness" in the Misericords (the flip-up wooden seats in the choir stalls):

• Sarcastic Apes: You can find 14th-century carvings of apes performing a mock funeral and even an ape "physician" examining a patient.

• The Lincoln Imp: While legendary, the Imp itself is a reflection of the medieval belief that the sacred and the grotesque (the "foolish") lived side-by-side.

The Lincoln Mystery Plays

Medieval Christmas in Lincoln wasn't just inside the Cathedral; it spilled into the streets through "Mystery Plays."

• These were massive theatrical productions performed on wagons.

• The Second Shepherds' Play: A famous part of the cycle featured a "foolish" shepherd named Mak who steals a sheep and tries to hide it in a cradle, pretending it’s a newborn baby. This slapstick comedy was performed right alongside the serious story of the Nativity.

Strange Characters of the Lincoln Mystery Plays

While the "N-Town" cycle of plays is the set most associated with medieval Lincoln, these performances were far from a standard Sunday school lesson. They featured "strange" characters that were often personifications of human vices or abstract concepts.

Character	Role / "Strangeness"
Raise-Slander & Backbiter	Known as "The Detractors," these two characters were personified gossips who went around town spreading rumors, specifically accusing Mary of being unfaithful to Joseph.
Belyall (Belial)	A primary devil who often acted as the "stage manager" for the scenes in Hell. He was frequently depicted with fireworks or loud "thunder" effects to scare and delight the audience.
The Four Daughters of God	In a play called The Parliament of Heaven, the characters Mercy, Truth, Justice, and Peace argue before God about whether humanity should be saved. It’s a courtroom drama in the middle of a Nativity cycle.
The Midwives (Zelomy & Salome)	Unlike modern Nativity scenes, medieval plays often included two midwives. Salome was famously a "doubting" character whose hand withered when she refused to believe in the Virgin Birth (it was later healed).
The "Hell-Mouth"	Not a person, but a character in its own right. It was a massive, painted mechanical head of a beast with snapping jaws. Actors playing devils would drag "sinners" into its smoking throat during the Doomsday plays.

A Quick Correction: The Case of Mak the Sheep-Stealer

You might hear people mention Mak the Sheep-Stealer in relation to Lincoln. While Mak is the most famous "funny" character in English Mystery Plays (he tries to hide a stolen sheep in a cradle and pretend it's a baby), he technically belongs to the Wakefield (Towneley) Cycle. However, because the plays were performed by traveling troupes, these stories often overlapped, and modern revivals in Lincoln frequently include these famous comic interludes.

Lincoln's Royal Bishop

Geoffrey Plantagenet was an illegitimate son of Henry II.  He was born about 1150, before his father married Eleanor of Aquitaine.

Even though he had not taken holy orders he was appointed Archdeacon in 1171, in 1173 he was elected Bishop of Lincoln and his position was confirmed in 1175.

Bishops of the middle ages were often involved in military battles, Geoffrey was no exception, in 1173 and 1174 he led a campaign to put down a rebellion by his legitimate half-brothers in the north of England.  The King's sons we unhappy about the gifting of three castles, in the inheritance of Henry the "Young King", to John, his youngest son, as part of a marriage settlement.  The rebellion which covered an area from southern Scotland to northern France was put down. Henry and his sons were reconciled.  Henry II ordered 10 castles demolished after the rebellion.

Geoffrey was not remarkable in any religious way but he did clear off the bishop's mortgage and add two bells to the Cathedral.  Geoffrey resigned in 1182 to become Archbishop of York and was ordained in 1191 in Tours, France.

He was the only one of Henry II's sons attending when his father died in 1189.

As Archbishop of York he was in constant dispute with his clergy and the king and, following a dispute with King John in 1207 about taxes, he fled to France where he died in 1212.

 

 

Murder in Lincoln Cathedral

Lincoln and its Cathedral have been the background for many strange and bloody events, but the one described here is probably one of the most tragic.

William de Bramfield was a subdean at Lincoln Cathedral, he would carry out the duties of a Dean in the Dean’s absence, and according to an unknown chronicler William was “a good and a just man”.

On 25th September 1205 William was kneeling in prayer in St Peter's Chapel on the south side of the lesser Transept in the Cathedral when he was attacked and killed by another subdean who was jealous of his position as one of the Dean’s favourites.

St Peter’s Chapel
The Location of the Murder

There are two stories about the fate of the murderer: one states that William’s servants cut down and hacked at the murderer and threw his body out of the Cathedral, the other states that the murderer was tied to the tail of a horse, dragged to Canwick Hill and there hanged. There was a gibbet near the top of Canwick Hill where criminals who committed their crimes in the City were hanged. The name of the murderer is not known.

King John arrived in Lincoln on the 3rd October 1205, he visited Lincoln Castle but it is not known whether he had any interest in the murder.

Lincoln Cathedral Close

The Cathedral Close was the wealthiest area of medieval Lincoln encouraging “cutpurses”, thieves and murderers to frequent the area at night preying on the people of the Close.

​Medieval Lincoln was divided into three districts: the City, the Bail and the Close*; each was a locally independent self-governing place. The Close is the area surrounding the Cathedral, housing the priests and officials of the Cathedral, together with their servants and those involved in the operation of the Cathedral and the Close. It is believed that the Close came into being at the time of the building of the Cathedral.

*Beaumont Fee was also a self-governing area outside the jurisdiction of the City.

The Dean and Chapter (under the instruction of Oliver, bishop of Lincoln) were granted licenses to crenellate the Close, “for their (the clergy) better safety from night attacks in passing from their houses to the said church”. The first licence was issued on 8th May 1285 for a 12-foot wall (the licence was repeated in 1316) the second was issued in 1318 to raise the wall and add turrets.  The licences required the gates to be open during the day

The Close Wall on Winnowsty Lane

The boundary wall of the Close was intact in 1722 with three of the four towers and is still standing in many places.

The first Lincoln houses to have numbers were in the Close, the “Number Houses”, built after the mid 18th century and somewhat modernised and altered since.

There are over 80 buildings in the Close, most of which are in the ownership of the Cathedral, many of the buildings are of Grade 1, 2 or 2* significance. These are some of the most important:

The main entrance to the Close was Exchequergate, all the gates were double, with a courtyard between the sets of gates, except for Pottergate and Greestone gate, where the incline precluded the use of two gates.

Bishop Alnwick's Tower, 
The Bishop's Palace.

The Bishop’s Palace, a grand medieval series of buildings largely destroyed by the Parliamentarians during the Civil War. Standing on the south side of the Cathedral it is a manifestation of the power and wealth of Lincoln’s medieval bishops.

The Chancellory, on Priorygate opposite the Cathedral, is easily recognised by the grand oriel window on the first floor, it is believed to be Lincoln’s oldest brick building.

The Choristers House, stands near to Priory Gate Arch. Built in 1661 it was converted into 3 residences in 1887

The Deanery, built by Dean, later Bishop, Gravesend in 1254. By the 19th century this building was in a poor state of repair and was replaced on the same site in the mid-1840s.

The Subdeanery stands to the south side of the Exchequer Gate. a medieval building, re-fronted in 1873 by J.L.Pearson.  A mosaic and hypocaust was discovered on the site in the 18th century.

Cantilupe Chantry stands opposite the south east door of the Cathedral.  Founded by Nicholas, Lord Cantilupe for a college of priests, to say mass for the souls of the founder and his relations at an altar.

The Vicars’ Court, the entrance is on Greestone Lane, above the stairs.  It was built as a ‘college’ for 20 Vicars Choral¹.  It was originally formed into a quadrangle but many of the other buildings have been removed, Thought to have been erected during the reign of Edward I, but much altered since.

The Vicars’ Stables or Tithe Barn stands below the Vicars’ Court and is a long two storey building built by Bishop Alnwick and John Breton in the 1440s.  Lately used for storage and as a dining hall for the former Girls’ High School on Lindum Road.

¹ In medieval times the most important people of the Cathedral were the Canons. often living elsewhere they appointed so-called ‘Vicars Choral’ to deputise for them 

Pottergate, the south gate of the Close.  The gate gets its name from the belief it was built on a Roman pottery.  Over the years it has become a traffic island, first on the west side to relieve traffic congestion in the late 19th century, in the 1930s because corporation buses were too high to pass under.

Cranky Jimmy, an Artist in Cork

James and Anne Anderton with
 a model of the Scott Memorial

James Anderton was born in Lincoln on 10th March 1825 and baptised in St Botolph's church on 12th April 1825, his father, Henry, was a collar and harness maker, working next to the church.

James didn't like school and, before his teenage years, worked as a day worker for local farmers, eventually he worked as a labourer on Towler's farm at Boultham. Towlers employed him to stop the cattle getting into the crops.

From an early age, James enjoyed making models. His first model was of a Chinese church, Italian and German artisans toured the country with plaster models of the Chinese church, made of wood, he covered the windows with fabric which, when lit from the inside with a candle gave it a spectacular appearance. Unfortunately, James' sister was showing it to some friends one evening and set fire to the church.

James next made a model of Lincoln Cathedral in wood, it took him over a year to complete. With the help of a friend he put it on a cart and took it around the area as far as some of the local villages, exhibiting it in the street. He blew a horn, and when a crowd had assembled he would uncover it and collect donations. The model was very heavy and the Mechanics Institute at Greyfriars agreed to display it for a year with the promise of a donation, there were no payments received so the model was withdrawn by James.

He next made a second model of Lincoln Cathedral but made out of corks as it would be much lighter than his wooden model Almost every day after working on the land he would walk to the cathedral to study it's architecture, on his way he would collect corks that had been thrown away. His work soon became well known and he would be sent corks from all over the country. His model of the cathedral comprised of an astonishing 1,000,800 corks. The model was built to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, the dimensions were as follows 10' 5” long, height 5' 9”, width 7' 6”.

The West Front was the first part completed, using 13,500 corks: it was exhibited at the Great National Agricultural Show in Lincoln in 1854 where it was called “The eighth wonder of the world”.

In total, it took him 10 years 6 months to complete the model of the Cathedral and earned him the nickname of “Cranky Jimmy”

The fame of his model spread throughout Lincoln and he was visited by many hundreds of people, it was one of these visitors who suggested he should display it at the 1862 International Exhibition in South Kensington. A fund was set up to pay for the transportation of the model and £26.00 was raised. Unfortunately, one of the packing cases was dropped when it arrived in London and the contents badly damaged, it was five weeks before the model was repaired and ready to be shown.

The organisers of the exhibition could not give him a medal for his work as it was made from old corks and not normal materials, but he was presented with a season ticket to the exhibition and allowed to receive donations.

At first, he dressed in a good suit provided for him by an uncle, but soon realised that people thought he was already wealthy and didn't give donations, he instead wore the white smock that he had used when making the models and working on the farm, donations then poured in, he would receive donations of £10 to £12 daily.

His showing at the Exhibition was such a success that his hobby became his career and made him a wealthy man. Among other things, he built four cottages on Alfred Street, Lincoln. A plaque was placed in the wall of the cottage he lived in. “Perseverance, Cork and Glue, 1862” to indicate what was required to build his models. The cottages became known as “Cork Model Cottages”, they were demolished about 1969.

His next cork model was of St Botolph's church, where has was baptised and he married in 1849. He placed an inscription over the model:

“This is the church where he was wed,
A peal of bells rang over his head
This peal of bells you all shall hear
By putting in a copper here
When you have placed the money in
You look through the door below
The little figures will be pulling the ropes
As fast as they can go”

James showed the church model at the Lincoln and Boston fairs, the interest and money raised encouraged him to travel further afield with it.

The model of Lincoln Cathedral was badly damaged, the North Transept was completely destroyed because a lighted candle was left in it. It took him 7 months to repair it. When he had completed the repair he began a tour of the country, first visiting all the towns and many of the villages of Lincolnshire.

James made more models, including one of the Scott Monument in Edinburgh, which was also exhibited at the International Exhibition in South Kensington in 1862. He toured the country showing his models and earning a good living.

In April 1865 he crossed the Humber and began his Yorkshire tour in Hull where he was so impressed by St Stephen's church he built a model, taking him four months and 30,119 corks.

The Scott Monument was exhibited in Edinburgh in 1871 during the centenary celebrations of Sir Walter Scott's birth, alongside models of Lincoln Cathedral, St Nicholas Church in Newcastle and other fine models

The following 25 years he toured throughout England and Scotland exhibiting his models and living in caravans.

He died at Blandford hospital in Dorset in 1892 at the age of 67. By this time his fame had spread worldwide with obituaries as far away as Australia.

Unfortunately, I have not been able to establish what happened to the models after his death.
​

The Foss Dyke

The Foss Dyke Navigation is about 11 miles long, from Torksey Lock on the river Trent to Brayford Pool in the centre of Lincoln; it is the oldest canal in Britain, however, we do not know for sure how old it is. Sometime before 1774 a bronze statuette of the Roman god Mars was found in the Foss Dyke at Torksey; this discovery dated it as Roman.  Click the link to see image and description of the statuette http://bit.ly/marsfoss

The canal was reputedly used by the Danes when they invaded England and by the Normans to carry stone to build Lincoln Cathedral in the 11th century.

But the earliest mention of the canal is in the year 1121, in Symeon of Durham's, Historia Regium : "In the same year, king Henry cut a large canal from Torksey to Lincoln, and by causing the River Trent to flow into it, he made it navigable for vessels." The absence of any other documentary evidence indicates that the Canal was built during the reign of Henry I.

The Romans may have built a canal from Torksey to Hardwick, at the centre of a large Roman farm; this canal was probably extended during Henry I's reign.

The Foss Dyke enabled Lincoln and the Fens of Lincolnshire to communicate with Gainsborough and Hull, and with the Ouse and York.

Over the centuries the canal went into decline due to lack of maintenance. Katherine Swynford, who lived at Kettlethorpe near to the canal, is credited with having organized a protest to repair it, in 1375. The canal continued to deteriorate, until by the 17th century it was virtually impassable.

"1518, 10 June. A collection begins to be made towards the cleansing and repairing of the Foss-dyke, for which the King has sent down his commission. [The work was found to involve more cost than it proved easy to discharge, and on 14 Dec. it is reported that the Bishop of Lincoln had issued a commission to all curates and others in his diocese for aid, and granted pardon to all them that helped in the same, and collectors are appointed in consequence to ride to divers towns. Collections continued to be made for a long time, including York and Hull in their range.]" 
"1571 24 March Where[as] within the county of Lincoln, timber, wood, coal, turf and other necessaries have been almost clearly felled, taken away, consumed and spent by many greedy persons, owners of the same since the dissolution of the late religious houses, to the great decay of the poor ancient city of Lincoln, formerly served out of the said county with these necessaries for the relief of the said city and for setting the poor people on work; and for that there is yet some plenty of timber, &c. within the counties of Nottingham, Derby and York next adjoining, whence the said poor city could be well served if the same could be brought by water; [it is desired] that an Act of Parliament may be made for a commission to assess all persons within seven miles of the city for the dyking, cleansing and scouring of Foss-dyke, in order that sufficient water may be brought from the Trent to bring the said timber, etc." - The corporation of Lincoln: Registers, vol. IV (1564-99)

King James I transferred ownership of the canal to the Corporation of Lincoln.

In 1671, during the reign of Charles II, Lincoln obtained an Act which authorised improvements from Boston to the Trent. Work was carried out on the Fossdyke, but only the first 100 yards (91 m) of the Witham, from Brayford Pool to High Bridge, received attention. The work was carried out by Samuel Fortrey, a man with previous experience of draining the fens. He was required to bear some of the cost himself, in exchange for some of the profits. The work was completed in 1672, and included a navigable sluice or lock at Torksey, which had first been proposed by Simon Hill in 1632. Warehouses and wharves were built at Brayford Pool.

1685 July 21.—Whereas for these several years now last past it hath been a custom in this city for the mayor elect and the two sheriffs elect severally to make and give a treat or banqueting on every Holy Rood day, being Sept. 14, presently after they were elected, and the said treat or banquetting not only being a great trouble and charge, and several abuses and misdemeanours committed on that day by the freemen and inhabitants and the great number of foreigners which constantly resort to the said treat, to the great disturbance of the King's peace and abuse of the said treat; and for that the said treat or banquetting upon serious consideration is looked upon to be a thing altogether unnecessary and useless; therefore it is hereby ordered that the said treat . . . . shall for the future be clearly laid aside and none made. And the city being much in debt for money borrowed for the Foss dyke and for renewing the charter, 13l 13s. 4d. shall yearly be deducted from the Mayor's allowance of 90l., and 26l. 6s. 8d. from the sheriffs' allowance of 46l. p. 398. - The corporation of Lincoln: Registers, vols VI and VII (1653-1710)

By 1717, passage from Torksey was again difficult. Coal traffic averaged 1,357 tons per year, bound for Lincoln, but tolls were insufficient to finance repairs. 

The corporation in 1741 granted a lease of two-thirds of it for 999 years, at a rent of £50 per annum, and of the remaining third, for 99 years, at £25 per annum to Richard Ellison of Thorne, and it was reopened in 1745. Previously to this period coals were sold at twenty one shillings per chaldron ; but when Ellison cleared the canal, and re-opened the river in 1745, they were offered and sold at thirteen shillings.  He dredged it to provide 3.5 feet (1.1 m) of depth, and re-opened it in 1744. Two years later, the tolls were £595, and continued to increase. Under his son, the tolls were £2,367 in 1789, while his grandson collected £5,159 in 1811.

"From that time to the present, this long neglected canal has been improving, and the increasing number of vessels daily floating on its surface, renders it an almost inexhaustible mine of wealth to the lessee, an incalculable benefit to the commercial part of the city, and a never failing source of employment to the industrious poor."
- The History of Lincoln; Containing an Account of Its Antiquities - 1825

1826 Plan of the Fossdyke Navigation

The Great Northern Railway negotiated with the proprietors of the Witham and Fossdyke in 1846, to guarantee them an income by leasing the waterways. Richard Ellison IV had agreed a lease for 894 years, at £9,570 per year, based on the average profit for the previous three years plus 5 per cent.

A series of takeovers and mergers resulted in its ownership changing several times, before it was nationalised, and became the responsibility of the British Waterways Board in 1948.

Today the Foss Dyke is a popular pleasure boating canal, boats from Lincoln and Boston can connect with the canals system of England, subject to beam width.

Today Torksey Lock is a popular mooring for pleasure boates.