Medieval Christmas at Lincoln

In medieval England, Christmas was not just a single day but a massive Twelve Day festival that balanced solemn religious devotion with wild, "world-turned-upside-down" revelry. After the four-week fast of Advent, people from all social classes stopped working from December 25th until Epiphany on January 6th.

The Twelve Days of "Misrule"

Medieval celebrations were famous for role reversals, where the social hierarchy was temporarily flipped.

The Lord of Misrule: A commoner or servant was often appointed to "rule" over the festivities, leading the drinking and games.

Boy Bishops (known in Latin as the Episcopus Puerorum): In Lincoln Cathedral and many others, a choirboy would be elected "bishop" wearing full vestments and performing all church duties except the Mass.  

The Boy Bishop was typically elected on St. Nicholas Day (December 6) and "reigned" until Holy Innocents' Day (28 December). During this time he wore a miniature set of episcopal robes, including a mitre and a ring, provided by the cathedral.  He and his "canons" (the other choir boys) performed almost all the services, except for the Mass itself.  He led processions through the city of Lincoln, where he would bless the people and collect money for the cathedral’s poor or for the choristers' own fund.  At Lincoln, as at other major cathedrals like Salisbury, the Boy Bishop would symbolically take the real Bishop’s seat during the Magnificat when the choir sang the line: "He hath put down the mighty from their seat and hath exalted the humble and meek."

Boy Bishop and his Canons

The tradition was abolished in Lincoln and across England by Henry VIII in 1541, as he viewed the "childish observations" as mocking the dignity of the church. While it was briefly revived under the Catholic Queen Mary I (1553–1558), it was permanently suppressed by Elizabeth I.  Unlike Salisbury or Hereford, which have revived versions of the ceremony today, Lincoln Cathedral does not currently maintain a formal Boy Bishop tradition, though it remains a key part of its medieval history.

The Records at Lincoln

Detailed records from the 14th and 16th centuries confirm the tradition:

The Statutes (1308-1309): Cathedral documents from this era specify the exact requirements for the ceremony. For example, they record that on the Feast of St. John, the Boy Bishop was to be given a high-quality wax candle weighing half a pound, while the other choristers were given smaller candles.

Records from the final years before the Reformation show that the Boy Bishop at Lincoln was still actively celebrating Vespers on the vigil of Holy Innocents' Day (December 28).

Beyond the Boy Bishop, Lincoln Cathedral was a major site for the broader Feast of Fools (Festum Fatuorum), a more raucous and adult version of the "misrule" tradition. While the Boy Bishop was for children, the Feast of Fools was the time for the subdeacons—the lower-ranking adult clergy—to let loose.

A Tale of Two Feasts

The food you ate depended heavily on your status, but everyone indulged after the long Advent fast.

For the nobility the centerpiece was often a Boar’s Head, decorated with rosemary and bay. They also served exotic "show" dishes like roasted swan or peacock, sometimes sewn back into its own feathers to look alive.

Most peasant families ate goose or specialised "Christmas pies." A popular dish was frumenty (a thick wheat porridge boiled with milk, eggs, and spices).

Unlike today’s sweet version, medieval mince or "shrid" pies were filled with shredded meat (mutton or beef), suet, dried fruits, and spices like cinnamon and nutmeg to represent the gifts of the Magi.

Traditions and Greenery

While they didn't have Christmas trees (a Victorian import), medieval homes and churches were heavily decorated with holly, ivy, and bay.

A massive Yule log was brought in on Christmas Eve and kept burning for the full twelve days. It was considered bad luck if the fire went out.

Wassailing,  is an ancient British winter tradition, rooted in Anglo-Saxon "Waes Hael" (be healthy), that blesses orchards for a good harvest and celebrates good health through singing, drinking spiced cider, and making loud noises to scare away evil spirits from the trees, typically around Twelfth Night.

Caroling: Originally, carols were communal circle dances accompanied by singing, performed both in the streets and in the churchyards.

Gift Giving

Surprisingly, Christmas Day was not the main day for presents. In medieval England, New Year’s Day was the traditional time for exchanging gifts.

Lords were expected to give "Christmas boxes" to their tenants and servants (the origin of Boxing Day), which often contained money, leftover food, or clothing.

Peasants, in turn, were often required to give their lord a "gift" of a couple of hens or a specific amount of grain as part of their rent.

In fact, Lincoln provides some of the most specific historical evidence for the practice in England. The tradition was a central part of the cathedral's "Twelve Days of Christmas" celebrations and was even codified in the cathedral's official statutes.

Here are the specific "foolish" traditions that took place in and around medieval Lincoln:

The Feast of the Circumcision (January 1st)

This was the primary day for the Feast of Fools. 

Just as the choristers took over on Holy Innocents' Day, the subdeacons took the seats of the Dean and Canons  on New Year's Day, electing a mock bishop/pope, parodying services, and indulging in revelry, allowing a yearly release of "foolishness" to preserve order.

Some records suggest the performance of the Orientis Partibus (The Song of the Donkey), where a live donkey was sometimes led into the cathedral to honor the Flight into Egypt. The congregation would respond to the priest’s prayers by braying ("Hee-haw!") instead of saying "Amen."

The "King of the Bean"

In the wealthy households around the Cathedral Close and the city, the Twelfth Night (January 5th) feast was the grand finale.

 During the feast, a bean was hidden in a cake or loaf of bread.  Whoever found it in their slice became the "King of the Bean." If a woman found it, she became the Queen (or appointed a King). For the rest of the night, the real head of the house had to wait on the "King" and do whatever they commanded, no matter how ridiculous.

The Clash with Bishop Robert Grosseteste

Lincoln is famous in church history for the fierce opposition of its 13th-century bishop, Robert Grosseteste. He was one of the first major reformers to try to ban the Feast of Fools.  In a famous letter to the Dean and Chapter of Lincoln, he called the festival a "house of joking, scurrility, and trifling" and a profanation of the sacred space.  Despite his efforts, the tradition was so beloved by the local clergy and townspeople that it survived in various forms for another 200 years.

Satirical Carvings: Humour in Stone

If you visit Lincoln Cathedral today, you can still see physical evidence of this medieval "foolishness" in the Misericords (the flip-up wooden seats in the choir stalls):

• Sarcastic Apes: You can find 14th-century carvings of apes performing a mock funeral and even an ape "physician" examining a patient.

• The Lincoln Imp: While legendary, the Imp itself is a reflection of the medieval belief that the sacred and the grotesque (the "foolish") lived side-by-side.

The Lincoln Mystery Plays

Medieval Christmas in Lincoln wasn't just inside the Cathedral; it spilled into the streets through "Mystery Plays."

• These were massive theatrical productions performed on wagons.

• The Second Shepherds' Play: A famous part of the cycle featured a "foolish" shepherd named Mak who steals a sheep and tries to hide it in a cradle, pretending it’s a newborn baby. This slapstick comedy was performed right alongside the serious story of the Nativity.

Strange Characters of the Lincoln Mystery Plays

While the "N-Town" cycle of plays is the set most associated with medieval Lincoln, these performances were far from a standard Sunday school lesson. They featured "strange" characters that were often personifications of human vices or abstract concepts.

Character	Role / "Strangeness"
Raise-Slander & Backbiter	Known as "The Detractors," these two characters were personified gossips who went around town spreading rumors, specifically accusing Mary of being unfaithful to Joseph.
Belyall (Belial)	A primary devil who often acted as the "stage manager" for the scenes in Hell. He was frequently depicted with fireworks or loud "thunder" effects to scare and delight the audience.
The Four Daughters of God	In a play called The Parliament of Heaven, the characters Mercy, Truth, Justice, and Peace argue before God about whether humanity should be saved. It’s a courtroom drama in the middle of a Nativity cycle.
The Midwives (Zelomy & Salome)	Unlike modern Nativity scenes, medieval plays often included two midwives. Salome was famously a "doubting" character whose hand withered when she refused to believe in the Virgin Birth (it was later healed).
The "Hell-Mouth"	Not a person, but a character in its own right. It was a massive, painted mechanical head of a beast with snapping jaws. Actors playing devils would drag "sinners" into its smoking throat during the Doomsday plays.

A Quick Correction: The Case of Mak the Sheep-Stealer

You might hear people mention Mak the Sheep-Stealer in relation to Lincoln. While Mak is the most famous "funny" character in English Mystery Plays (he tries to hide a stolen sheep in a cradle and pretend it's a baby), he technically belongs to the Wakefield (Towneley) Cycle. However, because the plays were performed by traveling troupes, these stories often overlapped, and modern revivals in Lincoln frequently include these famous comic interludes.